Saṃskṛtam: The Language of the Gods
Saṃskṛtam: The Language of the Gods
संस्कृतम् - देव भाषा
Saṃskṛtam (Sum-skr-tum) is perhaps one of the oldest living languages in the world. Saṃ-skṛtam (anglicized as Sanskrit) means refined and cultured. This short essay on Saṃskṛtam attempts to present an emic perspective that is often missing in the popular discourse. The Indian tradition maintains that Saṃskṛtam originated from the ancient Vedas. The Vedas contain hymns dealing with cosmology, philosophy, spirituality and rituals. These hymns are believed to be apaurusheya (not a product of the human intellect). Ancient Rishis (Sages) through their meditative practices experienced what may be termed as strings of primordial phonemes that became the building blocks of the language of the Vedas. The Vedas consist of these transcriptions that were assigned meaning and transmitted orally. Even today, the emphasis on precise recitation is transmitted through a guru-shishya parampara (teacher-disciple tradition). Hence the notion that the Saṃskṛtam language was born from the Vedas rather than the Vedas being written in the language of Saṃskṛtam. Following the Vedic age, around two and half millennia ago, the great grammarian Dakṣiputra Pāṇini systematized Saṃskṛta grammar based on the spoken language of his time through his seminal work, Ashtadhyāyi. Today, the Vedic language is commonly termed classical Saṃskṛtam (Vaidika Saṃskṛtam) while we use today Pāṇinian Saṃskṛtam or simply, modern Saṃskṛtam (Laukika Saṃskṛtam).
Pāṇini’s influence
Pāṇini formulated a systematic and rule-based approach to grammar using nearly 4000 sutras in his Ashtadhyāyi. In the early twentieth century, this structural methodology laid the groundwork for the father of modern linguistics, Ferdinand de Saussure’s ideas on structuralism. Panini’s work is considered one of the earliest examples of descriptive linguistics, focusing on how language is used rather than prescribing rules. Saussure adopted this descriptive approach in his studies. His theory of semiotics, which deals with the study of signs and symbols as elements of communicative behavior, was influenced by Pāṇini’s detailed analysis of linguistic units and their functions. The precision and formalism in Pāṇini’s grammar inspired Saussure to develop his formal systems for analyzing language, which became a cornerstone of modern linguistic theory. Panini’s influence on Saussure highlights the profound impact of ancient Indian scholarship on modern linguistic thought.
Varnamāla (Alphabets)
According to Pāṇini Shiksha, there are 63 letters (varnas) in the Saṃskṛtam alphabet and their unique arrangement (varnamāla) is based on phonetic properties, i.e., location of articulation in the mouth, aspiration (mahāprāna), and voice.
Vyanjanas (Consonants) in Devanagari with IAST Transliteration Scheme
In addition to the above 25 consonants (Vyanjanas), there are 21 vowels (Svarās), 8 Semivowels, 4 Yamavarnas (only present in Vaidika Saṃskṛtam), and 5 Ayogavahas (Anusvara, Visarga, Jivhamuliyam, Upadmaniyam, Duhsprushta).
The beauty of the Saṃskṛtam language is that the meaning of a word is generally self-evident. For example, vowels are called svarās. The great sage Patanjali defines the svarās in his Mahabhasya (the great commentary) as स्वयम् राजन्ते इति स्वरा: (swayam rajante iti swarah). This means svarās are those that embellish themselves (swayam) and do not need support for their pronunciation.
It is important to note that although other modern scripts are used regionally, the lipi (script) for Saṃskṛtam used today is Devanagari. During ancient times, Saṃskṛtam was written in other Brahmi scripts as well.
The Vedas
The Vedas are a collection of ancient sacred texts that form the foundation of Hindu traditions. Due to the nature of their origin, they are considered eternal truths hence the name Sanātana Dharma (Hinduism). Believed to be collated by Sage Vyāsa, the four Vedas including Rik, Yajus, Sāma and Atharva contain a collection of hymns, rituals, their explanations, and exploration of Brhman (the ultimate reality) and Atman (the self). They form the bedrock of over 5000 years of Indian civilization.
Manuscript of Rigveda - the oldest scripture in the world
The Vedangas
The Vedāngas or “limbs of the Vedas,” are six auxiliary disciplines developed to support the study and understanding of the Vedas. These disciplines are essential for preserving and interpreting the Vedic texts, ensuring their correct pronunciation, ritual application, and deeper comprehension. Their ancient origins are unclear but are used even today. The six Vedāngas include:
Shiksha (Phonetics): This discipline focuses on the correct pronunciation, accentuation, and phonetics of the Vedic texts. It ensures that the hymns and mantras are recited accurately, preserving their intended sound and meaning.
Chandas (Prosody): Chandas deals with the study of the Vedic meter. It involves the analysis of poetic meters, including the structure and rhythm of verses, which is crucial for the proper recitation of Vedic hymns.
Vyakarana (Grammar): This discipline is concerned with the rules of Saṃskṛtam grammar. Vyakarana helps in understanding the structure of words and sentences, ensuring that the Vedic texts are interpreted correctly.
Nirukta (Etymology): Nirukta involves the study of the meanings and origins of words, especially those that are archaic or have complex meanings. It provides explanations and interpretations of difficult Vedic terms.
Kalpa (Rituals): Kalpa focuses on the procedures and guidelines for performing Vedic rituals. It includes instructions for various rites of passage, ceremonies, and sacrifices, ensuring that they are conducted properly.
Jyotisha (Astronomy): Jyotisha deals with the study of celestial bodies and timekeeping. It includes the understanding of natural cycles, the calculation of auspicious times for performing rituals, and getting better insights into the cosmic order.
These six Vedangas collectively support the preservation, interpretation, and practical application of the Vedic knowledge, ensuring that the ancient wisdom is passed down accurately through generations.
अरणिस्थं यथा ज्योतिः प्रकाशान्तरकारणम् ।
तद्वच्छब्दोऽपि बुद्धिस्थः श्रुतीनां कारणं पृथक् ॥
araṇisthaṃ yathā jyotiḥ prakāśāntarakāraṇam |
Tadvacchabdo api buddhisthaḥ śrutīnāṃ kāraṇaṃ pṛthak ||
Just as the fire which is within the churnsticks is the cause of the kindled fire,
Similarly, the word that is in the speaker’s mind becomes the cause of the expression.
Vakyapadiya of Bhartrihari 1.46
The Oral Tradition
Vedic hymns demand precision in accents and pitch variations during recitation. The three Svara (pitch) variations of Udātta, Anudātta and Svarita preserve the intended sound and meaning of the hymn. Incorrect pronunciation of even a single alphabet changes the entire meaning and affects the efficacy of a mantra.
In the Taittiriya Samhita, there is a story of Tvashta who performed a yagnya (sacrifice) to beget a son who would destroy Indra. He used the word indra-shatru (Indra-enemy) in the mantra. However, he used a Svarita (high note) on the word ‘Indra’ instead of ‘shatru’ because of which the meaning of the word changed from ‘Slayer of Indra’ to ‘the one who will be slain by Indra’. Due to this mispronunciation, his son was defeated by Indra.
Referencing this story, the Pāṇini Shiksha makes this statement:
मन्त्रो हीनः स्वरतो वर्णतो वा मिथ्या प्रयुक्तो न तदर्थमाह ।
स वाग्वज्रो यजमानं हिनस्ति यथेन्द्रशत्रुः स्वरतोऽपराधात् ।।
mantro hinah svarato varnato va mithya prayukto na tadarthamah ।
sa vagvajro yajamanam hinasti yathendrashatruh svarato aparadhat ।।
A mantra devoid of the correct vowels (Svara) is faulty and does not convey its intended meaning.
It is like a verbal thunderbolt that harms the one who is chanting,
as had happened in the case of erroneous pronunciation of the word, Indrashatru.
The Literary Tradition
The Saṃskṛtam language holds immense significance in the cultural and historical landscape of India. Saṃskṛtam served as the medium for preserving and transmitting this ancient wisdom through a vast corpus of literature covering diverse topics. A short summary of this is presented below.
Itihasas (The Epics)
The Rāmāyana written by Vālimiki is considered to be the ādi kāvya (first poem created by humans) and consists of 24000 verses composed in the Anuṣṭubh Chandas (meter). Anuṣṭubh Chandas is a quatrain of four pādas (lines) of eight syllables each with specific requirements based on position. The intent of the Rāmāyana is to help human beings navigate through life and achieve the four purushārthas (four proper goals or aims of life) of dharma, artha, kāma, and moksha.
The Mahābhārata written by Vyāsa is the longest poem ever written in the world. Consisting of over 200,000 verses, it is about 7.5 times the length of the Iliad and Odyssey combined.
Purānas
There are 18 principal Purānas (Ancients) ranging from 10,000 to 55,000 verses each. They contain narratives about cosmology, genealogy, philosophy, geography, and other topics. They are generally in the form of a dialogue for easy understanding by common people and inspiring them to embody ethical and spiritual values.
Kāvyas
Kavya is a literary style that uses poetry and prose and displays the skill of the author to immerse the reader into the emotion of the subject being narrated using the masterful use of Saṃskṛtam and its literary devices. Among hundreds of Kavyas across millenia, the Kumārasambhava and the Raghuvaṃśa by Kālidāsa, Kiratarjuniya by Bharavi, Naiśadha-carita by Shriharsha, and Śiśupāla-vadha by Māgha are considered the 5 Mahākāvyas (5 great Kāvyas).
Scientific Literature
Saṃskṛtam has also been the language of science and mathematics. Treatises covering astronomy, trigonometry, geometry, algebra, medicine, botany, etc. continued to be produced in Saṃskṛtam until the colonial period. There is a newfound interest in resurrecting this ancient work and understanding its influence on human advancement. The table below lists some of the stalwarts whose pioneering works shaped the scientific advancement we boast today. Many ideas and discoveries traveled to Europe via Arabia and the source of these ideas remain unrecognized even today.
Source: Kamble, Bhaskar. “The Imperishable Seed” Garuda Prakashan Private Limited, 2022; Kak, Subhas. “A Brief History of Indian Science” subhashkak.medium.com
Concluding Note
Saṃskṛtam is not merely a language, it is a repository of wisdom, culture, and heritage. It has been instrumental in maintaining continuity in Indian civilization. It transcends regional boundaries and unites diverse communities and languages. As the language of ancient scriptures, rituals, and classical arts, Saṃskṛtam bridges the past and present. It is both the oldest and the most sophisticated of world languages.
वागर्थाविव संपृक्तौ वागर्थप्रतिपत्तये ।
जगतः पितरौ वन्दे पार्वतीपरमेश्वरौ ॥
vāgarthaviv sampruktau vāgarthapratipattaye ।
jagatah pitarau vande pārvatiparameshvarau ॥
I salute the parents of the universe, Pārvati and Parameswara, who are inseparable like the “ vāk” (word) and “artha”(its meaning); to seek the ability to convey the right meaning through the choice of words.
-Opening shloka of Kālidāsa’s Raghuvamsam
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Author's Note
This blog explores Vedic concepts and their relevance today from the standpoint of a learner. This essay is one such attempt to inspire others to explore the beauty of Saṃskṛtam on their own, and by no means written as an expert. As such, any shortcomings should be forgiven as those of an enthusiastic student.
ॐ श्री गुरुभ्यो नमः
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